Anchorites

The Anchorite (1881) by Teodor Axentowicz

Anchorites were a subsect of Christian monasticism that emerged sometime in 11th century England. Closely associated with hermits, anchorites believed that seclusion from secular society brought them closer to the divine. anchorites are distinguished from hermits by their entombment within an anchorhold, a type of cell most often attached to a local church. The contents of an anchorhold largely depended on the affluence of the attached church, ranging from ascetic prison-like cells to multi-roomed structures with attached gardens. Anchorholds were allotted 3 windows. One would face the church altar, allowing an anchorite to hear mass, receive the eucharist, and commune with guests seeking their wisdom. A second allowed servants to tend to the occupant's physical needs, and a third, (veiled with cloth) would face the street to allow in light. 

A window in the anchorhold of St Nicholas, Compton. It faces the church altar, and it is believed that that is the original wooden window sill worn down from use.

    Anchorite theology frames their incarceration as a kind of death both thematic and literal. The tradition seems to be a method of killing the body whilst keeping the soul alive, as shown in the traditional reading of the Office of the Dead at the time of internment. Anchorites were also considered to be living saints by some, further muddying the line between life and death. In the literal sense many anchorites were not allowed to leave their cells until after death. Most considered the act of leaving the anchorhold to be dereliction of their divine duty, and as such avoided even the thought. There are even accounts of anchorites choosing to stay behind during attacks and fires and being left to a grisly fate.

Anchorites were held in high regard in their time, answering to none other than bishops within the church. Anchorites were also known for their wisdom, enticing people from miles around to seek their advice. It is also notable that the gender ratio of anchorites is notably skewed towards women, rating 4:1 at the tradition's peak. This makes anchoritism an interesting acknowledgement of and simultaneous critique of medieval anti-feminism. The ritual often focused heavily on eve's original sin, but unlike other examples of the concept anchoritic authors focus on the overcoming of one's natural shortcomings as opposed to punishment. It has been made a clear distinction that the vow of internment is not a punishment, but an active pursuit of solitude that many consider a reward.

 

 

 

The System of Feudalism

 Origins and History of Feudalism

  

   Following the collapse of Roman administration, and the gradual decline of Roman infrastructure in Western Europe an ever increasing number of people began migrating from the urban areas of the empire to the countryside resulting in a transition from a central, urban Roman Empire, to a primarily rural and decentralized Europe. This meant that people now living in small communities had to produce most of what they needed on a daily basis within their own community as they could no longer rely on trade or assistance from the state. This came due to a gradual decline in trade and transportation owing to the increasing instability of the empire, and the frequent wars both civil and otherwise that were fought within its borders. This led to the development of the manor system which revolved around a lord who owned the land upon which others lived and worked. The peasants who rented this land, and the serfs tied to it all contributed goods and services to the lord, and in exchange received protection, a judicial and administrative services, and infrastructure from them. The serfs for their part were tied to the land more directly and unlike peasants could not leave if they so chose, they were almost exclusively agricultural workers unlike peasants who could also provide skilled labor, and in addition to being obligated to pay tithes to their lord on whose land they worked, they were also obligated to spend some portion of their time each year working the lord's fields along with their own. In this manner the average Medieval community could be, more or less, self-sufficient, not being overly reliant on trade or assistance from a central government or outside trade. This system would largely endure until a combination of a labor shortage in the aftermath of the plague which allowed peasants to re-negotiate their leases, and the wars of religion making people more amenable to a strong central state combined to replace feudalism with the absolute monarchies associated with the Age of Empire and monarchs began to centralize power, reign in their nobility, and to have final say on vassalage contracts.

How Feudal Systems Worked

    The feudal system worked based off systems of loyalty and vassalage, which constructed a sort or societal pyramid which placed laborers at the bottom, the lower nobility above them, and an increasingly small and more important series of nobles above them going all the way to the monarch at the very top, encompassing everyone in society apart from the clergy who were separate from this system. There was also a great deal of variety in the wealth and occupational status of those within the lower tiers as a farmer, stonemason, and a wealthy merchant would all still be considered of the peasantry due to their lack of land and title. Even the retinues of lords were considered amongst the peasantry if they did not own land, and though they possessed some privileges they were loyal to their lord and their lord alone, and spoke with his authority rather than with any of their own like a landed knight would. The nobility for their part were not expected to work for a living, and derived their wealth from their subjects and vassals who worked on and leased their land. These nobles would often practice something called subinfeudation in which the nobility would grant land and titles from their own land to local leaders, who would then grant land and titles from their land and so on creating a chain of power going all the way from the king and the upper nobility, to the lower nobility and their knights and retainers. This land would be given out in exchange for oaths of loyalty and vassalage made to the lord who granted them, and the expectation that these vassals would support their lord financially, militarily, and politically. 

Why Feudalism?

    Feudalism as a system worked primarily because it was so decentralized and allowed for communities to essentially support themselves with very little outside assistance, and because the system of vassalage created alternate bases of power somewhat independent from the monarchy. Due to the large travel times between settlements and and subinfeudation power became spread amongst so many nobles that monarchs for most of the Middle Ages were playing a balancing act to stay in power, balancing their ambitions and the needs of the state with the ambitions and needs of powerful nobles. This balancing act was important due to the fact that many nobles were not directly accountable to the king and were capable of raising their own armies and warring against both each other and him, though the oaths of loyalty and the vassalage system was supposed to prevent this from escalating to war with one's own lord. This system born out of necessity in following the collapse of Rome spread power among so many local rulers that it was not until the 16th and 17th centuries that power began to truly become centralized again as Europe urbanized once more, and even then the absolute monarchs of this era still retained the nobility at least nominally. This change did not really take effect until the combination of growing urban centers, a labor shortage due to plague deaths, resentment towards the nobility, and the wars of religion such as the 30 Years war made people more inclined to support a central government, allowing the king to rely on a burgeoning 'middle class" from which he could derive power separate from the nobility.

Why is this Relevant?

    

    All of this is relevant for our purposes as the relationship between members of the Medieval nobility is frequently relevant to the main conflict of many of the works written during the Middle Ages. This was for good reason, it was the system of governance everyone was familiar with, and it played a major part in the lives of those who were literate who would have been overwhelmingly of the nobility or the clergy. Furthermore, since Medieval literature would have been written on vellum and transcribed by hand, it would have been very expensive meaning that most texts were available only to the wealthy. All of this coupled with the human infatuation with those in positions of wealth, power, and authority and the tendency to romanticize the lives of these people led to the ideas of vassalage, and the relationships between nobles and between nobles and their subjects and retainers play a major part in many stories. In addition to this many of the writers of the time would have been patronized by a particular noble, and so would be writing to the sensibilities of their patron, though this is not always the case, and many stories were still written for the common man, but these tended to be transmitted orally. Many pieces of literature such as songs, poems, plays, or otherwise would be preformed in public places for the entertainment of those who could not read them, and so some elements of popular culture among the peasantry do make it into these stories. With all this considered the ideas surrounding and realities of Feudalism are central to many Medieval stories as it was the status quo of the world these writers and their audiences lived in and understanding this system contributes to a greater understanding of the actions, and motivations of many of the characters in Medieval stories that may seem alien to us today. These people would also have been expected to act a certain way according to what social strata they belonged to and were often written to act according to the idealized view of how nobles and their underlings should act, or in a satirical manner embodying many stereotypes and criticisms of these groups.

Sources

Krowke, Andre. The Age of Absolutism (17-18th Century).

"Famine and Death in Medieval England." https://www.europenowjournal.org/2018/09/04/famine-and-dearth-in-medieval-england/.

Netchev, Simeon. "The Feudal Society in Medieval Europe." World History Encyclopedia, 16 Mar. 2022, https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15424/the-feudal-society-in-medieval-europe/.

Sengupta, Ramprasad. "Technology and Social Dynamics: Feudalism and Its Decline." Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 10 no. 38, 1975, pp. 1504-10. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4537392. Accessed 11 Sept. 2024.

Stephenson, Carl. "The Origin and Significance of Feudalism." The American Historical Review, vol. 46, no. 4, 1941, pp. 788-812. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1841824. Accessed 11 Sept. 2024.

The Amanuensis

Every body of work that survives today from the Middle Ages was the work of a Medieval scribe who labored over it for countless hours. In the age before the printing press the role of the scribe was incredibly valuable, for each manuscript had to be copied by hand and in painstakingly accurate detail. The amanuensis, "one employed to write from dictation or to copy manuscript," was crucial in the dissemination and preservation of knowledge (1). An amanuensis was responsible for transcribing documents, manuscripts, religious texts, and more by hand. They often worked closely with their employers to record documents as they were dictated, which was especially important for individuals who were illiterate or had limited writing skills. In some cases, amanuenses were more than just scribes; they might also edit or refine the text, correcting errors or suggesting improvements. 

Much of the work was done in monasteries, in a specific room called a scriptorium. These were specialized rooms or areas dedicated to the production and copying of manuscripts. They were designed to be quiet and well-lit in order to best facilitate the work of copying. Natural light was crucial for the work, so scriptoria were usually placed in areas with large windows, often facing east to capture the morning light (2). The scriptorium was a silent and disciplined environment, reflecting the monastic ideals of contemplation and devotion. Scribes would typically work at individual desks or writing tables, which were often slanted for easier writing (2). 

The Making of A Manuscript

According to the Minneapolis Institute of Art, "Manuscripts were written on either vellum (calf skin) or parchment (sheep or goat skin). The skins were cleaned, stretched, scraped, and whitened with chalk to provide bright, strong, and smooth pages for writing" (3). The scribe would then mark out the margins of the page and the lines they were to write on, before finally copying the text with a goose or swan feathered quill pen (3). Scribes were usually equipped with a few lettering styles, which their commissioner could choose from for their manuscript (3). This meant that a commissioners copy could be somewhat unique. After this part of the writing process was done, an illuminator would receive the manuscript to decorate. It was unusual for the scribe to be the one to illuminate the text, or for these things to be done in tandem with one another.

Typically, upon receiving the manuscript, the illuminator would employ several steps to its decoration. First they would glue gold or silver leaves to the pages in a process called gilding (3). Then pictures, border decorations, and ornamental lettering would be added to the manuscript (3). Once the pages were finished with the illumination stage, they would be folded, sewn together, bound between either wood or leather, and typically held shut with metal clasps or leather ties (3). For an in depth look at this entire process, see the video linked below: 

Christina of Markyate (c. 1096 - c. 1155)

One example of the relationship between an amanuensis and employer exists in Christina of Markyate, a 12th-Century Medieval mystic who defied societal expectations by rejecting an arranged marriage to pursue a life of religious devotion and seclusion. The amanuensis responsible for The Life of Christina of Markyate played an essential role in documenting her spiritual experiences, struggles, and achievements. Since Christina lived in a time where few women were literate, the scribe served as the intermediary between her oral recounting and the written word. Without the work of her amanuensis, Christina's life and contributions might have faded into obscurity. The scribe likely took down her words during conversations, ensuring that her story was preserved.

Some scholars comment on the influence that a scribe might have over an oral account such as this one, since any editorial work done would have been under their control. In this case, Ruth Mazo Karras argues that we "see [Christina's life] only through male (and monastic) eyes," while Thomas Head agrees that "the language of The Life of Christina of Markyate [...] tells us little or nothing of Christina's self-understanding" (4). While the work aimed to accurately reflect Christina's spiritual journey, the amanuensis may have shaped the narrative to reflect contemporary ideals of sanctity and the role of women in religious life (4). Medieval hagiographies often followed specific literary conventions meant to highlight the sanctity of their subjects, sometimes at the expense of historical accuracy (5). Since Christina's own voice is mediated through the scribe, her personal agency in the storytelling process is questioned. The narrative's focus on religious virtues and miracles suggests that the scribe may have molded her life story to serve a moral and spiritual purpose, making it less autobiographical and more didactic in nature. 

We do not currently know the identity of the amanuensis who transcribed Christina's experiences. Still, scholars speculate that the amanuensis was likely someone within her religious community, a monk or a cleric perhaps, who would have had the literacy and training necessary to record her experiences (6). This close-working relationship would have allowed the amanuensis to understand and faithfully reproduce Christina's spiritual insights, but we should still take into account what might have been edited or omitted when reading and talking about this work. 

Margery Kempe (c. 1373 - c. 1438)

In contrast to The Life of Christina of Markyate, the work of Margery Kempe presents a more direct and unfiltered account of the life of a Medieval mystic, with Margery dictating her life story in her own voice. A laywoman and mother of fourteen children, Margery experienced intense religious visions after her first pregnancy and thus pursued a life of devotion which included extensive pilgrimages to holy sites across Europe and the Holy Land (7). The Book of Margery Kempe recounts her spiritual experiences, struggles with her faith, and encounters with church authorities and provides unique insight into medieval spirituality for women (7). Scholars now understand that much of what Margery recounts can be tied to postpartum psychosis, particularly in her accounts of uncontrollable weeping, hallucinations, and delusions following her pregnancy (7).  

What makes this work unique is that it is widely understood that Margery herself is responsible for most of the language of the text. Her amanuensis, Richard Salthouse, has been "understood to occupy the role of scribe rather than editor of the Book" (8). Margery's humanity - her flaws, anxieties, and emotional outbursts - are on full display, making her account more complex and less saintly than that of Christina of Markyate's hagiography. Salthouse's limited editorial intervention suggests that The Book of Margery Kempe remains close to an authentic autobiography. Anthony Bale speculates that Salthouse was a monk at Norwich's Benedictine cathedral priory, given "the proficiency and orderliness about [the book] that suggests it was written by a well-trained scribe, probably highly educated and/or in holy orders" (8). 

Understanding the role of the amanuensis in medieval manuscript creation deepens our understanding of how knowledge was preserved back then, and sheds light on the power dynamic between the scribe and their subject. The relationship between amanuensis and author - whether in shaping Christina of Markyate's life to fit hagiographic conventions or in faithfully recording Margery Kempe's authentic voice - illustrates the complex dynamic between authorship, agency, and editorial control in medieval manuscripts. Looking at the manuscripts of women such as Christina and Margery, and the scribes who created those manuscripts, helps us gain valuable insight into how women's spiritual experiences have been documented and transmitted through time. 

Ptolemaic System

 Understanding the Ptolemaic System

Like today, people in the Medieval Ages used astronomy and cosmology to influence their writing and craft themes and ideas based on understanding the universe. And this is exactly what happened with the Ptolemaic System. 

Cosmological Diagram, estimated 1496-1498, found in Eches amoureux (1)

What is the Ptolemaic System?

The Ptolemaic System was theorized in 150 CE by the Greek astronomist Ptolemy who took inspiration from Aristotle.  It is a geocentric model. In short and simple terms, the Earth is the center of the universe, and all the other planets, stars, and the Sun revolve around it. It was widely accepted during the Middle Ages throughout both Europe and Islam. 

A little more in-depth explanation 

The Ptolemaic model consisted of nine cosmic spheres arranged in a strict hierarchy from top to bottom. The highest point was the Empyrean where God resided (aka highest heaven), and it was also the source of the Premium Mobile (Prime Mover). This was thought to affect everything else in the universe either through its own movement or if you believed in Christianity through God's will. (2) 

Beneath the Empyrean, the Stellatum existed, sometimes called the Circle of Fixed Stars(9), which was a sphere with holes "through which the fire of God shines all the way down through the rest of the spheres and is visible on Earth"(2). This light is now known as the millions of stars and constellations we see each night. 

The sublunary sphere, est. late 14th century, found in
Brevari d'amour (1)

Underneath the Stellatum, existed the spheres of the 7 planets and moon in descending order Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the moon (1). 

Below the moon exists the sublunary sphere. This is where the four elements (water, fire, air, and earth) dwelled and contended with one another. The sublunary realm, unlike the heavens, was subject to constant and unpredictable change(3). 

And in the centermost of all the spheres is the Earth. Earth was the center of God's attention. Ironically, it was also the most distanced from the Empyrean and therefore the most subject to straying away from God (2). 

Everything lived in perfect harmony with each other. The spheres moved in a circular motion mirroring God's perfectedness and it created the "music of the spheres" (1). However, Man inhabited the sublunary sphere which was corruptible ever since Adam's fall, and due to the fall, humans could no longer hear this music from God.

 

Ptolemaic System's Impact on the Medieval Ages and Literature

The Great Chain of Being within the spheres (4)

The Ptolemaic System was finite, beyond the Empyrean there was nothing. Due to this, the Medieval person was always certain of their place in the universe and never had anxiety about what was beyond their realm of existence (2). Additionally, due to the strict hierarchy of the spheres, each body had its own fixed position which introduces the Great Chain of Being. Quick overview. The chain goes from God at the top to angels, men, women, animals, plants, and minerals. Overall, everyone in the Medieval world has their natural place in the universe. Many pieces of literature often mirror this Great Chain of Being and hierarchical system. They use central ideas like women being too emotional to act with reason and men as the superior race. Furthermore, Chaucer's House of Fame(8) mentions the Great Chain of Being. 

Fun Fact: There is usually a line drawn between men and women separating them from being rational creatures (God, angels, and man) to irrational creatures (women and animals). 

The Great Chain of Being was also represented as objective and subjective hierarchies. In objective texts, the hierarchy is non-malicious and unprejudiced. This is shown in Wolfram Van Eschenback's Parzial. It is the German version of the Quest for the Holy Grail. Hierarchical thinking exists mainly in the character of Ferefiz. He is both black and white, and non-Christian. Due to his being non-Christian, he is not able to find the "Gral." It is not with a malicious intent that he is unable to find the "Gral" it is simply put that since the stone is an object of God and he does not believe in God he is not able to see the stone(2). In subjective texts, the hierarchy of everything has its natural place, and those who believe in God are better than others. This is seen within the French Epic The Song of Roland(5). In the epic, anyone who is not Christian is introduced as a heathen and product of the devil, meanwhile, the Christian leader is presented as a conqueror and champion (2). 

As a desire to reflect the perfectness of God, the Ptolemaic system often has a recurring number three due to it being considered the Prime number, reflecting the Christian Trinity, and being able to perfectly divide into itself. This explains why there are nine spheres within the system(2). Oftentimes, within Medieval literature, the number three is mentioned in some way, especially in religious pieces. It is usually symbolic of the Holy Trinity, and in this case, sometimes the three heavenly spheres. 

Earthly paradise, Nicolas de Lyre (1) 

Medieval writers believed that various planets, or the Empyrean could influence the events that happened on Earth. This belief was widespread and often demonstrated in literature. For instance, in Chaucer's Wife of Bath(7), the lines read, "Venus gave me lust, my amorousness, / And Mars gave me my sturdy boldness" (3). 

Oftentimes, pieces of literature explained the Ptolemaic System and how it worked. Dante in Paradiso(6) gives an in-depth explanation of the understanding of the Premium Mobile as the Christian God: "The nature of the universe, which holds / the center still and moves all else around it, / starts here as from a boundary line. / This heave has no other where / but in the mind of God, in which is kindled" (3). Additionally, in Dante's La Vita Nova and Divina Commedia, the writings follow the form of the universe, and each is written to match the hierarchical structure of the Ptolemaic System (2). 

So Why Does the Ptolemaic System Matter? 

Although the Ptolemaic System obviously is disproven today, it still has a huge impact on Medieval literature and culture. It completely changed the way people thought about themselves and the hierarchal structure as a whole. They used the Ptolemaic System as a basis for understanding theology and philosophy. It became so ingrained in their culture, that even after the system was disproven, writers still continued to use the ideas of the Ptolemaic System in their pieces. We cannot think of the Medieval Ages, as modern readers, as out of touch, because most of the main themes and ideas we see today came from Medieval literature. Overall, it is so interesting to see how astrology and cosmology played a significant role in what Medieval writers wrote about, and how those ideas still carry on in literature today. 

Resources

1. Jokinen, Anniina. “Medieval Cosmology.” Luminarium.

             31 Jan 2012. Accessed Sep. 10, 2024.

             http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/medievalcosmology.htm

2. Donaldson, Mark-Allan.  "The Ptolemaic System and the Ramifications of Hierarchical Thinking; The Impact of Medieval Literature." CUNY Academic Works. 2016. Accessed Sep. 10, 2024. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1657&context=cc_etds_theses

3. Faletra, Michael. "Medeival Cosmology," 2017. Accessed Sep. 10, 2024. https://michaelfaletra.weebly.com/medieval-cosmology.html

4. Curry, Willow. "The Great Chain of Being." Mar. 13, 2017. Accessed Sep. 10, 2024. https://medium.com/@willathewisp/the-great-chain-of-being-715bc9162f82

5. Tuldor, and Jessie Crosland. The Song of Roland, 1999, www.yorku.ca/inpar/roland_crosland.pdf.

6. Dante, and Courtney Langon. Paradiso, Harvard University Press, 1921, Accessed Sep. 10, 2024. https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/langdon-the-divine-comedy-vol-3-paradiso-english-trans

7. Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Accessed Sep. 10, 2024. https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/pages/wife-baths-prologue-and-tale-0

8. Chaucer, Geoffrey, and A.S. Kline. The House of Fame. Poetry in Translation, 2017. Accessed Sep. 10, 2024. https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/English/Fame.php

9. The University of Texas at Austin. "Dante's Paradiso and Fixed Stars." Instructional Technology Services. Accessed Sep. 10, 2024. https://danteworlds.laits.utexas.edu/paradiso/08fixedstars.html

Heraldry & Coats of Arms

Pontbriand Coat of Arms (Mark Cartwright) 

In the Middle Ages (specifically 12th century CE), heraldry was used to define who a person was under layers of armor.  It originally was used to identify people within battle, but evolved by the 13th century CE to denote family descent, alliance, adoption, property ownership and profession (3). Known more commonly as armory, heraldry was distinct from other ancient symbols of the time because heraldic arms were both personal and hereditary. The name comes from the heralds that were responsible for listing and advertising amoral bearings, especially at tournaments. It was a herald's job to recite the rules and challenges of a tournament, as they were expected to have extensive knowledge on who was under a set of armor (1). 

Coat of Arms of Joan of Arc
Mark Cartwright

Coat of Arms refers to the cloth worn over the set of armor to shield it from the sun, it would also be on the banner and shield (2). Coat of arms also helped to heralds to identify the dead as they searched the battle field and in social surroundings of a tournament. Arms also appear in official records, seals of correspondence, stained glass, tombs, and even tableware. As the Middle Ages went on, both heraldry and coats of arms because more elaborate and complex, showing more family lineage than to identify oneself on the battlefield (1). This is especially apparent in the use of shields. 

Shield Designs 

Early uses of arms did not need to be complex, as the most obvious place to have identification was on a shield, which did not have much surface area. In the 12th CE, shields were simple, bearing a single color or two separated by a horizontal/vertical line or two (1). Then as more people decided to take up coats of arms, they needed to be more varied in order to identify anyone. This resulted in not just colors, but symbols becoming adopted. Some being eagles, crosses, flowers, lions, etc. (2). There were also symbols added to denote when families married and their coat of arms would be mixed in a half and half design (4). 

Coat of Arms of Anne of Brittany 
Mark Cartwright

Illustration of shields
Clement Prinsault

13th Century CE Roll of Arms 
Mathew Paris 

Typical colors for this time were generally limited to gold (yellow), silver (white), red, black, green, purple, and blue. Green and purple were less common and only seen in the wealthy (4). To increase design as more knights took up coats of arms, lines diving the shields became more and more complex. Arms were meant to be reproduced by artists, so they had to be simple enough to replicate, but still describing the families profession and name (3). One common misconception however, is the use of mythological animals (1). Those were not used until after the Middle Ages. Heraldry and coat of arms still exist today, seen in clubs, sports teams, and military. 

Works Cited 

(1) Cartwright, Mark. “Medieval Heraldry.” World History Encyclopedia, https://www.worldhistory.org#organization, 29 Sept. 2023, www.worldhistory.org/Medieval_Heraldry/.

(2) “Coat of Arms.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 27 Aug. 2024, www.britannica.com/topic/coat-of-arms.

(3) “Coat of Arms.” Medieval Chronicles, 4 June 2023, www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-history/medieval-coat-of-arms/.

(4) “The DOS and Don’ts of Medieval Heraldry.” The Dos and Don’ts of Medieval Heraldry : Medieval Text Manuscripts, www.textmanuscripts.com/blog/entry/12_15_dosanddon-ts. Accessed 10 Sept. 2024.

Enclosed Garden

detail from The Little Garden of Paradise, by the Master of the Upper Rhine, c1410-20

Enclosed Gardens 

By Thea Eppley

What is an Enclosed Garden?

North Forty New

        In the Latin language, an enclosed garden is known as a hortus conclusus (Wikipedia Contributor). Enclosed gardens were a central part of Medieval culture. This was due to the fact that many church monasteries housed enclosed gardens. Churches, monasteries, and monks were central to medieval culture, especially British medieval culture. The first monasteries that were built in England were estimated to have been built around the year 598 C.E. Many of these monasteries were previously Roman villas adapted to be places of worship for Christians (Admin). Within these villas, there were courtyard gardens, or cloisters, which the Romans brought over to Britain (Wikipedia Contributor). When the monks converted these villas, they created walls around them to protect the crops they had from potential wars, sieges, plagues, and blight that would affect the vegetables, herbs, and medicinal plants growing within the garden. The walls not only virtually protected the crops to prevent famine, but they also helped the monks and monasteries become self-sufficient. The monks could grow their own crops without having to rely on neighboring villages. This boosted not only their status in the religious sense, but it also boosted their power when peasants wanted food or medicine and could not make any of their own (Admin). 

Flemish illustration of the Romance of the Rose c. 1485

    The enclosed gardens had extremely specific features and layouts. Typically, they were divided into four parts and had some sort of water feature such as a fountain, well, or basin in the center. Herbs, flowers, and small trees were the main crops planted and tended to. Each enclosed garden in the monasteries had unique features or designs. Some had tunnel arbors, lawns, fruit trees, a gravel path, and a geometric layout for the hedges and beds (Santa Clara University). The enclosed garden was only open to the upper classes to enjoy. This was since the gardens were not intended to be productive in any manner. They were meant to be religious places. In Christianity, the Garden of Eden is a major symbol and holds high significance to anyone who participates in the faith. The enclosed gardens within the monasteries were meant to be a symbolic Eden on earth (The Garden Trust). The significance of an enclosed garden in Christianity can be seen through the art that came out of the Middle Ages.

Representation in Art

    Many paintings from the Middle Ages hold imagery of enclosed gardens. This is not only for its representation of the Garden of Eden but also the depiction of the Immaculate Conception and the Virgin Mary. Trees, walls, trellises, flowers, and some animals such as a lamb are typical imagery shown in enclosed garden paintings (Wikipedia Contributor). These are shown to represent the growth and life of nature and God. It is also a representation of the Garden of Eden and how lush it was. Fountains are often present in general depictions of an enclosed garden as well. These fountains typically symbolize the waters of life and or baptism into the faith (The Garden Trust). While each of these symbols is important to Christianity and the concept of enclosed gardens, the imagery with the highest significance presented in a depiction of an enclosed garden is women. 

 

      The Virgin Mary is typically the main woman depicted in enclosed gardens. She is the holiest woman present in the bible and the mother of God, making her a central figure in Christianity. Mary is also typically considered the anti-Eve, so it makes sense that she would be the central figure in a living symbol of Christianity and Eden healing the sins of man in a way. This is typically shown through the imagery of the Immaculate Conception shown in an enclosed garden. One example of this can be seen below in Fra Angelico's The Annunciation painting.

Women as Enclosed Gardens

     The Virgin Mary herself is also an enclosed garden. In the Song of Solomon 4:12, it says "A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse; a garden enclosed, a fountain sealed up" (Wikipedia Contributor). Mary here is referred to as the garden. This is because not only is her womb going to grow the son of God. Since she is also a virgin, she is not considered a "plowed field" like other women, so she is sealed up, protected, or an enclosed garden. This ability to grow humans and the concept of virginity making you pure vs being unpure and a "plowed field" when you are no longer a virgin is the significant symbolism ever present even today which makes all women enclosed gardens.

Work Cited

Admin. “The Influence of English Medieval Gardens.” North Forty News, 4 May 2023, northfortynews.com/category/gardens-landscapes/the-influence-of-english-medieval-gardens/.

The Garden Trust. “The Hortus Conclusus.” The Gardens Trust, Wordpress.com, 16 Oct. 2023, thegardenstrust.blog/2023/09/02/hortus-conclusus/.

University, Santa Clara. “A Medieval Garden for Santa Clara University.” A Medieval Garden for Santa Clara University - St. Clare Garden - Santa Clara University, Santa Clara University, www.scu.edu/stclaregarden/stclare/medievalgardens/. Accessed 10 Sept. 2024.

Wikipedia Contributor. “Hortus Conclusus.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 7 Aug. 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortus_conclusus. 

Courtly Love

 Lovers in the Codex Manesse, circa 1340.

What is Courtly Love?

In the Middle Ages, marriage did not always revolve around the concept of true love. Marriage brought more of a "material advantage" to the couple and their families, leaving little room for romance (4). According to Syed Rafid Kabir from History Cooperative, courtly love is "a medieval concept that romanticizes an idealized and often unattainable form of love, characterized by devotion, chivalry, and poetic expressions of longing" (2). In other words, this expression of love often involved a knight and a noble lady, one who was usually married or simply beyond reach. This chivalrous endeavor was typically kept secret, sparking illicit emotions through literature. The connection between the unreachable lady and the knight usually focused more on the emotional and mental attraction than the physical aspects and was almost always unrequited (2).  

Origin of Courtly Love

According to Joshua J. Mark from the World History Encyclopedia, this love poetry originated in Southern France during the 12th century (5). Mark continues with discussing the origin of courtly love, highlighting the beginnings of the name, quoting Scholar Lee Smith saying, "The term itself dates back only to 1883 CE when Gaston, Paris coined the phrase Amour Courtois to describe Lancelot's love for Guinevere in the romance Lancelot (c. 1177 CE)" (5). Interestingly, courtly love came to be recognized from the works of traveling poets and troubadours, most famously William IX, who was Eleanor of Aquitaine's grandfather (5). 

                               

   

                                       Guide to Courtly Love: Rules 

 In the 12th Century, there were rules women and men were expected to follow. The four main rules are as follows:

Marriage is no excuse for not loving 

One who is not jealous cannot love.

No one can be bound by a double love.

Love is always increasing or decreasing.

These rules suggest that the main idea of courtly love is, according to the World History Encyclopedia, "never static but always dynamic, unpredictable, and ultimately unknowable" (5).

                  Courtly Love in Literature and Art

 Courtly love became a well-known genre during the Middle Ages. According to Herbert Moller's article "The Meaning of Courtly Love,"  this genre was typically "oral literature" and rarely "read in private, but always recited in public to the accompaniment of music" (6).  The prominent motifs of this poetic genre surround an inaccessible woman, a sworn knight, a forbidden love, and the dangers of said forbidden love (5).

Moller continues the discussion of the genre of courtly love, expressing that the poet is wholly occupied with "the amorous cult of a lady" who encapsulates "all of his thoughts, feelings, and actions" (6) These ideas of courtly love are seen in many works, most notably in the forbidden love of Lancelot and Guinevere in Chrétien de Troyes' Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart, and Marie de France's Lanval and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (7).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=64qMWtLgCtY

Psalters and Book of Hours

    

Introduction 

    Religion played a fundamental role in teaching the population of the Middle Ages how to read. Two highly regarded texts were available to the masses, either through attending religious services and listening to clergy read from the Psalter manuscript, or through private devotion embodied in a personal prayer book such as a Book of Hours. The latter text gave women and the non-nobility a foothold in religious practices otherwise taught to nobility or otherwise dominated by men. 

Illuminated Psalter (10)

Psalter

    Psalters were religious manuscripts used by members of the religious community—such as priests, monks, and nuns—as a guide for daily prayers. They were kept in churches and monasteries, and contained the Book of Psalms from the Bible, a collection of 150 Hebrew religious hymns (2); Old Testament texts, creeds, and other prayers (3); and illuminations colored in reds, blues, and golds, depicting many religious figures (2). The illuminations within the manuscripts were helpful for monastic students struggling to read Latin (1), and were very illustrative for the illiterate population of the Middle Ages. 

"Initial B" (9)

    The texts of the Psalms were divided by large initials decorating entire pages, their sizes meant to differentiate from specific psalms that had to be read at certain hours (2). Those hours were marked by the Divine Office, or the Liturgy of the Hours, and consisted of seven-day hours and one night hour set aside for daily prayer and devotion to God. Before the book of hours was created, the wealthy laypeople, who could afford their own psalter, were able to read and participate in the hourly prayers, or they could reflect upon the psalms later in their own free time (1). 

 

Books of Hours

    The Books of Hours were personalized prayer books created for any common person of the Middle Ages. According to the Library of Congress, they were used for private devotion, and their rising popularity revealed how much the public wanted to speak to God and the saints independently rather than through the church (4). Similar to the Psalter, the Books of Hours contained psalms, prayers, and other religious texts, but "no two [were] exactly alike" (6). They were unique to their patrons in how much the pages were illuminated, the number of texts they desired, and how often they marked the calendars with personal events (such as births, deaths, and marriages) and saint's days. 

The Annunciation,
from a book of hours (11) 

Because the Books of Hours were in high-demand and very flexible, less wealthy citizens could obtain a book of hours themselves, increasing the range of literacy to the non-wealthy population as well. 

Sections of any Book of Hours included (5): 

1. A calendar that marked saint's days and other personal events unique to     its owner. 

2. Hours of the Virgin - Similar to the Psalter, the Hours of the Virgin adopted the same hours of the Divine Office, but they were hours devoted to the Virgin at the following times: Matins/Lauds (at night or after awakening), Prime (6 a.m.), Terce (9 a.m.), Sext (noon), None (3 p.m.), Vespers (in the evening), and Compline (before bed). 

3. The Seven Penitential Psalms that helped readers avoid sin. 

4. Obsecro Te and O Intemerata - Two opening prayers to the Virgin: "I beseech you" and "O immaculate Virgin." 

5. Litany - a listing of saints.

6. Office of the Dead - Prayers meant to help loved ones pass on into Heaven. 

7. Suffrages of the Saints - A section customized for the patron's favorite saint, including its portrait.

The Book of Hours (12)

 

Women's Literacy & Religious Practices of the Middle Ages 

    Although the Books of Hours were available to anyone, regardless of gender or class, many Books had special relationships with the women that owned them. Not only did the Books give women a place in religious practices, they were often gifted to brides by their mothers to pass down into the new family they'd create (7). According to Reinburg, "women considered their books of hours intimate possessions, objects to be passed down as a precious legacy to daughters, goddaughters, and dearest friends" (8). Passing down the book of hours became a tradition of sharing female emotions, thoughts, and aspects of their lives, as well as fostering female connection between descendants and ancestors through religion.   

Works Cited

(1) Cybulskie, Danièle. “What Is a Psalter?” Medievalists.Net, 1 Sept. 2022, www.medievalists.net/2015/08/what-is-a-psalter/.

(2) “Psalter.” Getty: The J. Paul Getty Museum Collection, www.getty.edu/art/collection/object/105SWH. Accessed 9 Sept. 2024.

(3) “The Psalter.” The Fitzwilliam Museum, fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/explore-our-collection/highlights/context/tradition-and-change/the-psalter. Accessed 9 Sept. 2024.

(4) “Book of Hours.” The Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/50041712/#:~:text=Summary,Virgin%20Mary%2C%20and%20individual%20saints. Accessed 9 Sept. 2024.

(5) “Books of Hours: Understanding the Sections of Books of Hours.” LibGuides at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, https://guides.library.illinois.edu/booksofhours. Accessed 9 Sept. 2024.

(6) Stein, Wendy  A. “The Book of Hours: A Medieval Bestseller.” The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, June 2017, www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/hour/hd_hour.htm.

(7) “Books of Hours: Women’s Literacy & Religious Lives.” University College Oxford, 21 Feb. 2023, www.univ.ox.ac.uk/news/books-of-hours/#:~:text=Although%20not%20exclusively%20made%20for,worship%20independently%20of%20the%20church.

(8) Reinburg, Virginia. “‘For the Use of Women’: Women and Books of Hours.” Early Modern Women, vol. 4, 2009, pp. 235–40. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23541586. Accessed 9 Sept. 2024.

(9) Leaf from the Psalter: Initial B. 1300. The Walters Art Museum, https://art.thewalters.org/detail/8364/initial-b-with-two-men-playing-harps-2/

(10) Illuminated Psalter. 1100. The Met, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/474236

(11) The Annunciation. 1390. The J. Paul Getty Museum, https://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/transcending_time/

(12) Catholic Church, et al. "Book of Hours." 1524. Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, .www.loc.gov/item/50041712/.

Holy Grail

 The Holy Grail

What is the Holy Grail?

The Quest for the Holy Grail originates from Arthurian legend. The quest is always more or less the same, it is the hero's journey, at the end of which one obtains the "treasure hard to attain." It is the search for that of which makes life most meaningful. The grail is said to encompass either "as a dish, a ciborium, and even a white stone" (1). With legends describing the miraculous powers this object withholds, it gained traction within the 15th century as "an elusive object of desire" (1). Various descriptions of the grail's powers have said to provide "eternal youth and sustenance healing powers in infinite abundance" (3). In many cultures and religions, this symbol is important because of its ability to heal, purify, and unify, and its connection to Jesus Christ. Some believe the Holy Grail is the cup that Jesus drank from at the Last Supper and what "Joseph of Arimathea used to collect Jesus's blood when he was crucified" (5). This object is known for its ultimate unattainability. In the legends, finding the holy grail "symbolizes a kind of mystical union with God" (2).

From Grail to Holy Grail

This item started out as a mysterious "grail", appearing observably out of the blue. The story of this religious relic is very explicit with Christian interpretation. The Holy Grail became a true holy entity when the French author, Robert de Boron, emphasised "the secular world of knighthood was linked with the spiritual world of religion"(4).  

There are many legends and theories regarding the grail and its origin, but the one that appears first is in Conte del Graal, which is also commonly known as Perceval. In the twelfth century, Chretien de Troyes brings to light the beauty and importance of such a relic in the poem (1). 

The Holy Grail as the Self 

One of the many universal human desires is the desire to become and feel whole. If we do not try, then we are cut off from the true source of our being, we feel empty. "The Holy Grail is a symbol of the self, the psychic totality and ultimate wholeness if the human being"(4). It is said to be an essential "force that drives us towards individuation"(4) and has the ability to "[bring] one's unconscious contents into consciousness"(4). The effect of the grail is not one that impairs knowledge, rather it is a process that is said to "give us an emotional readiness to receive a numinous experience of our inner centre"(4). People use this transformation of the inner self to guide them to the voice of God  

Works Cited:

(1) “Holy Grail.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., kids.britannica.com/students/article/Holy-Grail/274921#:~:text=In%20the%20legend’s%20most%20predominant,the%20legend%20originated%20is%20unknown. Accessed 9 Sept. 2024.

(2) “Holy Grail.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Aug. 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Grail.

(3) Miesel, Sandra. “Library : The Real History of the Holy Grail.” Library : The Real History of the Holy Grail | Catholic Culture, Morley Publishing Group, www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=6511. Accessed 9 Sept. 2024.

(4) “The Quest for the Holy Grail (the Self).” Eternalised Official, Eternalised, 10 Jan. 2024, eternalisedofficial.com/2023/08/23/the-quest-for-the-holy-grail-the-self/.

(5) Synan, Mariel. “What Is the Holy Grail?” History.Com, A&E Television Networks, 21 Aug. 2023, www.history.com/news/what-is-the-holy-grail.