The Four Humors

 

The Four Humors

(Blood, Yellow Bile, Black Bile, and Phlegm)

What are the Four Humors?

When it comes to medieval medicine, there is much ado about its strangeness, gore, and how different it is from medical practices today. The four humors had a direct link to health and the human body during this medieval period. The four humors, according to an article written by Angela He, are basically defined as four bodily fluids: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm (4). Elisabeth Brander's article about humorism explains that in order for a person to be considered healthy, these four fluids that moved through the body needed to remain balanced; numerous things were said to disrupt the balance of the fluids, such as your diet, sleep patterns, and the changing seasons (2). Additionally, people believed that everyone has a single dominant humor, referred to as their "complexion," which would then have a direct impact on their personality and appearance (4).

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Blood

When people had an abundance of the bodily fluid blood, they were often described as being sanguine. In other words, they were cheerful and had a ruddy appearance (4). It was said that spring time correlated to an excess of blood in one's body (2). Furthermore, in Viktor Athelstan's article examining the four humors, he explains that air is the element that corresponded with blood, while the degree of wetness and heat that was associated with blood was hot and wet (1).

Yellow Bile

When people had an abundance of yellow bile, they were deemed choleric, while having a jaundiced appearance and angry personalities (4). This collection of yellow bile was associated with the summer season (2). Yellow bile's corresponding elements was said to be fire, while the degree of wetness and heat was hot and dry (1).

Black Bile

When people had an abundance of black bile were called melancholic, while also being dark in complexion and having a creative, sad personality (4). The overflow of black bile was said to be common with autumn (2). Earth was the element related to black bile, and the degree of wetness and heat was cold and dry (1).

Phlegm

When people had an abundance of phlegm in their bodies, they were described as having listless personalities and having a pale appearance (4). The winter season is connected to the dominance of phlegm in the body (2). Lastly, water was the corresponding element, while the degree of wetness and heat was cold and wet (1).

Works Cited

(1) Athelstan, Viktor. “Medieval Medicine: The Four Humors Part 1, The Basics.” The Mediaeval Monk, https://themediaevalmonk.wordpress.com/2021/10/04/medieval-medicine-the-four-humors-part-1-the-basics/.

(2) Brander, Elisabeth. “Humoralism and the seasons.” BernardBecker Medical Library, https://becker.wustl.edu/news/humoralism-and-the-seasons/.

(3) “‘And there’s the humor of it.’” National Library of Medicine,https://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/shakespeare-and-the-four-humors/index.html.

(4) He, Angela. “The Humors and You! Medieval Health, Diet, and Humoral Theory.” BernardBecker Medical Library, https://becker.wustl.edu/news/humors-and-you/.

Zodiac Man

Zodiac Man 

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Introduction

Zodiac man aka Homo signorum, were depicted in writings and drawings which represents names with correlating body parts starting in the 11th century. They appear on calendars, Books of Hours, treatises of astrology, philosophy and medicine within the medieval era. They noticed that the high tide was brought by the overhead moon. They would look at the dangers of the zodiac sign and if it was occupied by the moon there might be "a tide of blood gushs out uncontrollably" (1).

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Oftentimes, there is a Christ-like figure with animal and allegorical signs. He is pictured standing on a fish for Pisces, on his chest is the crab of Cancer, the Gemini is on his arms weighing them down, and instead of a halo there is a goat and bull for Capricorn and Taurus (3) To the right there is a chart that has everything laid out to which zodiac sign goes to which parts of the body exactly (1). 

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Astrological Medicine 

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The Zodiac Man was used in medicine to determine the correct times for medication, surgery, and other procedures. When the moon and stars were to align with an astrological sign, there was a correlating body part. They had to be in alignment or at least not opposite of the body part undergoing surgery or treatment (3). This practice was most known in Christianity. The idea of zodiac signs is considered to be very spiritual. (1) This image to the right was created in 1541 by Christoffel Froschouer. This is a Zodiac man in the celestial wheel, which is the annual year calendar (2). 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiac_Man#:~:text=The%20Zodiac%20Man%20appeared%20most,to%20the%20skies%20for%20guidance. (1)

Kalender vff das M.D.XXXXI. Jar. (Zürich: Christoffel Froschouer, 1541), Page 1: Zodiac Man Detail. Cushing/Whitney Medical Library, Yale University. (2)

https://publicdomainreview.org/collection/zodiac-man/ (3)

https://teachingwiththemes.com/index.php/2020/06/03/the-zodiac-man-how-astrology-guided-health-care/medieval-zodiac-man/ (4)
 

THE DECEIT OF THE PARDONERS

A pardoner, as depicted in a manuscript of The Canterbury Tales

    While the Catholic values of the Middle Ages preached purity and selflessness, many clerical members functioned under a corrupt system. The church members, blinded by greed, began to prioritize fortune and wealth over the inherent values of Christianity. Therefore, in times of need, churches turned to sleazy solutions that eventually had consequences for Europe as a whole. The role of the pardoner in the Middle Ages emphasized the need for financial gain that plagued many churches - and regular individuals - at the time.

 Church Indulgences

    Before defining what a "pardoner" is, it is important to lay the groundwork of what exactly sparked the pardoners into existence. When an individual commits a sin and performs the sacrament of Confession, they are then eligible for an indulgence from this sin. In its original context, according to the Catholic Dioses of Memphis, an indulgence can only be granted after Confession, and it wipes the person of the "temporal punishment" that would arise in Purgatory (1). In the Middle Ages, one way an indulgence could be earned was by performing a good deed, such as offering volunteer time, donating resources to the poor, or giving monetary donations to charity. However, with money involved in the indulgence process, corruption was bound to appear as those with wealth found a way to trick the system.

 The Beginning of Corruption

    As money became a factor, more people wished to be granted indulgence for financial donations. Without coincidence, the church also began to require more funding for projects such as the construction of buildings and religious missions. As a result, the church began to appoint "pardoners," which are defined by The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable as "[people] who [were] licensed to sell papal pardons or indulgences" (2). Essentially, these pardoners would be sent out to collect the donations of wealthy church members in exchange for an indulgence. As Alfred Pollard states in his notes on Chaucer's "The Pardoner's Tale," "a payment of money to an approved charitable purpose was accepted as an equivalent for so many days' penance, and a certificate of such payment" was given as an indulgence (3). With the growth of pardoners, the need for Confession withered away, and people now had the opportunity to simply buy forgiveness for their sins.

Monetary coins of the Middle Ages (Castellogy)

    While the church was on board with the gifting of indulgences in exchange for funding, the pardoners eventually branched off into their own corrupt deeds. People began to parade around as fraudulent pardoners, and they would take money from individuals in exchange for falsified indulgences. One of the key characteristics of fraudulent pardoners was their use of "relics" to draw people in. Pollard states in his notes that fake pardoners would carry false religious relics, which people could view for a price to inherit the "special indulgences [that] had been attached" (3). In an attempt to combat this, the church began giving licenses to approved pardoners. In her blog post for A Writer's Perspective, April Munday states, "In theory, that meant pardoners would be limited in where they could go and that they would have to show their license as they travelled" (4). However, with naivete on the subject, most people would never ask to see a license, or they wouldn't even know how to read the license. This led to the continuation of corruption through the Middle Ages, with documents showing false indulgences of "hundreds or even thousands of years," according to Father Enrico dal Covolo's L'Osservatore Romano article (5).

 Chaucer's Depiction of Pardoners

    At the time that Chaucer wrote his famous work The Canterbury Tales, pardoners were still causing issues across Europe. Hence, Chaucer expressed the general view toward pardoners in his story "The Pardoner's Tale" within The Canterbury Tales. In the tale, the pardoner describes his commitment to taking advantage of others. He explains how he carries fake holy relics that he charges people to see. He could not care less about praying for sinners and giving indulgences, and he is entirely absorbed by greed (6). 

A page from a 15th century manuscript of

The Canterbury Tales (Britannica)

    This portrayal  mirrors the values of the fake pardoners that existed at the time. With the widespread popularity eventually gained by The Canterbury Tales, the story of the corrupt pardoner also became more well-known. In fact, Chaucer's depiction appears to be one of the best surviving accounts of the pardoner, and it has greatly aided in shaping what pardoners are known as today.

                        

Works Cited

1) Clark, James. "Faith Topics: Indulgences." Catholic Diocese of Memphis, https://cdom.org/faith_topics-indulgences/

2) "Pardoner." The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. 2nd ed. 2006, https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198609810.001.0001/acref-9780198609810-e-5229?rskey=Z5Vgmt&result=5201

3) Pollard, Alfred W. Notes. Chaucer's Canterbury Tales: The Prologue, by Geoffrey Chaucer, Macmillan and CO, 1903, pp. 93, 

https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chaucer_s_Canterbury_Tales/dfjV8a75qV4C?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA93&printsec=frontcover

4) Munday, April. "What Did Pardoners and Summoners Do?" A Writer's Perspective, 10 May 2020, https://aprilmunday.wordpress.com/2020/05/10/what-did-pardoners-and-summoners-do/

5) Covolo, Enrico. "The Historical Origin of Indulgences." L'Osservatore Romano, Vatican, 19 May 1999, pp. 9-10. Catholic Culture, https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=1054

6) Chaucer, Geoffrey. "The Pardoner's Tale." The Canterbury Tales, D. Appleton & Company, 1870, pp. 331-348, https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Canterbury_Tales/cQlEAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA332&printsec=frontcover

The Holy City of Jerusalem

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What is the Holy City? Why is it important?    

    The Holy City of Jerusalem is beyond sacred. In an article, Helena P. Schrader says "no city in Christendom, not even Rome, was considered so sacred as Jerusalem" (2). Jerusalem is also important because it was a target for the crusades around this time as well as it the city holds value for those of Christian, Judaism, and Islamic beliefs, and with Catholic beliefs.

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Values Held for the Holy City

    A major value this city held is it is the city that Jesus was crucified in AD 33. This value is important because believed by Catholics of this time, Jesus died for their sins and Mary, the mother of Jesus, is to be praised. As for Muslims, " the city was the land guaranteed by Abraham and the place where the prophet Muhammad ascended into heaven to meet Allah (God)" (5). As for those who follow the Jewish teachings of this time, "Jerusalem was important because it was the land guaranteed to them by Abraham. All three religions had (and still have) important religious sites in the city including temples, churches, mosques, and synagogues" (5). 

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The Crusades (1055-1291)

    The term "crusade" means cross. These crusades happened because the leaders of the crusades felt as they were picking up their cross everyday. They even went as far as wearing crosses on their clothing (5).

    The city was the central hot spot for the crusades to take place. In the earlier centuries, the Muslims had main control over Jerusalem. The crusaders were promised to be wiped from sin and eternal glory. They were also promised to gain wealth in the East (6). There was support from the Byzantine emperor. With that support, the nights guided the Armenian Christians, and marched into Jerusalem through Seljuk-controlled territories, which are in modern-day Turkey and Syria. In June of 1099, the Crusaders began their 5-week siege of Jerusalem. Jerusalem fell on July 15, 1099 (6).

Works Cited

1. Miélot, Jean. 1450s Depiction of the City, 1450. Jerusalem. Join-Lambert, Michel. Elk Books, 1958.

2. Schrader, Helena P. “Oh, Jerusalem: The Holy City and its Relation to the Crusades.” DefenderofJerusalem, http://www.defenderofjerusalem.com/jerusalem--.html. 

3. Signol, Émil. Taking of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, 15th July 1099, 1847, Musee et Domaine National de Versailles et de Trianon in Versailles, France. World History, https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/8983.jpg?v=1724120165-0. Accessed 8 September 2024.

4. Angelico, Fra. The Crucifiction, 1420-23, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, The Met, https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/437007. Accessed 8 September 2024.

5. Beck, Elias. “Why was Jerusalem so Important During the Crusades.” History Crunch, https://www.historycrunch.com/why-was-jerusalem-so-important-in-the-crusades.html#/.

6. Department of Medieval Art and The Cloisters. “The Crusades (1095–1291).” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/crus/hd_crus.htm (originally published October 2001, last revised February 2014)

Harrowing of Hell

 

What is the Harrowing of Hell?

    According to New World Encyclopedia (NWE), texts about the Harrowing of Hell have existed as early as third century C.E., but what exactly is the Harrowing of Hell that inspired so many works for so long? The Harrowing of Hell refers to how Jesus descended into hell after his death to free the souls who were trapped there before his time on Earth (Moon). This was believed to be how the original sin was undone so that humans could receive salvation (Moon). The understanding of the Harrowing of Hell comes from a selection of Bible verses from both the old and new testaments. The verses would describe the prison in which the souls were kept and it is thought that the phenomenon that occured when Jesus died, such as the earthquake and sky going dark, is when he entered Hell (Moon).

Differences Amongst Churches

  

 Despite coming from the same source material, different branches of christianity handle the Harrowing of Hell in their own ways. The early church, according to NWE, believed that the revival of Lazarus was a sign of the upcoming Harrowing of Hell, and that John the bapist went before Jesus to make his journey into Hell easier. The Roman Catholics believe that Jesus had his human soul join his divine prescence during this journey, which is symbolic of the body and soul concept common in catholicism (Moon). The Protestant church views the Harrowing of Hell as indicator of how much redemption as Jesus had to carry the weight of sin to Hell.

Presence in other works

    Being such an influential subject, the Harrowing of Hell's influence can be found in other works. Dante's Inferno, or as Red from Overly Sarcastic Productions refers to it, Dante's fanfic, is the story of a man named Dante taking a journey through the layers of Hell. The journey Dante takes is a direct reference to Jesus's own descent in the Harrowing of Hell.

Overly Sarcastic Productions Summary

Also, more modern works have taken inspiration from the Harrowing of Hell. Giovanni C. Costable wrote on how Tolkien's The Tale of Beren and Lúthien Hall of Mandos escape takes inspiration from the Harrowing of Hell (pp. 63). Costable says the deceased escaping the Hall of Mandos is similar to how Jesus freed the souls trapped in Hell.

Works Cited

"Classics Summarized: Dante's Inferno." YouTube, uploaded by Overly Sarcastic Productions, 21 March 2015, youtube.com/watch?v=gp8JGQk0CFQ

Costable, Giovanni C. "Orpheus and the Harrowing of Hell in the Tale of Beren and Lúthien" Mythlore,          422(144), 2024, pp. 61-84.

ImgFlip. Spiderman Pointing at Spiderman Meme. 2024. Spiderman Pointing at SPiderman Meme                   Generator, imgflip.com/i/92qc6f

Lees, Maurizia. The Harrowing of Hell. 2010, Our Lady of the Rosary, Brixton.                           

        loandbeholdbible.com/2023/03/30/the-harrowing-of-hell-1-peter-318-20-46/

Moon, Sun M.. "Harrowing of Hell." New World Encyclopedia, Edited by Jeff Anderson, Scott Dunbar,          Rosie Tanabe, Dan Voltz, Paragon House Publishers

The King's Two Bodies Theory

TKTB (4)

Typically, when you mention the Kings Two Bodies Theory, no one has any idea what you are talking about, or very little of what you are talking about. When you first hear the word 'King', what initially do you think of?

                                                       

Pause. 

If you said King Henry VIII, or King Charles III, you would not be wrong. But today, we are bringing all our attention to the notorious theory known as The Kings Two Bodies Theory. 

                                                              The Origin Story.

The Theory of the Kings Two Bodies goes all the way back to the Middle Ages, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. It was initially developed when English lawyer Sir Edmund Plowden had proposed the idea that after a king dies, he has two bodies: Natural and Political bodies.To put it in other terms, "the King's natural body dies and the political body continues as its successor" (2). This could also be a way too establish power between the monarchies and its people. If citizens fear the power of the king, they will be patient to obey the successor after the king dies, if they are under the impression of the king and the body are the same person. 

To understand what Plowden is talking about, I have included some of Plowden's definitions.            

•   Immortal Metaphysical Entity   - Body politic migrates from one monarch to the next throughout history.
•   Collective entity - Body politic contained all English people through this process. 

Plowden believed this theory to be common in a medieval political world, as did many others who came after him. "He defined the body politic in two ways: as an immortal metaphysical entity and as a collective entity." (2). This is believed to be a philosophical method explaining how a person has two souls: one that they leave behind as a legacy for future generations and peers, and one that carries on into the afterlife In his reports however, the body politic details the king as the head and the subjects as the members.

Edmund Plowden - 15th Century (2)

                                                                                        Theory Turned Novel.

Ernest Kantorowicz - 1957 (1). 

In 1957, a historian at Princeton University, Ernest Kantorowicz decided to write a novel depicting this theory from centuries ago (1). He wrote this novel because he wanted to understand how theorists in the Middle Ages, like Plowden, understood the purpose of the king and office. This novel, "describes the figure of an European Monarch as a unique product of religious and legal traditions that produce the notion of the 'king' as simultaneously a person and an embodiment of the community of the realm." (1). The image of the 'king' is depicted so differently among the realm of pop culture, especially with the image of Christ upon a cross, which is often depicted as a grave, tragic event. Yet, has had many interpretations over the centuries. The realm refers to the two bodies the king has (3). This is also where the concept of the body and soul approach. The physical body is obviously the body whilst the soul represents the body's immortality. 

Evolution of the Kings Two Bodies today. 

Today's monarchy in England (3)

 Today, this tale can highlight the importance of governments and society's care. (3). Showcasing each and every part of our well-being must be cared for, even in the afterlife. Our choices between governments also cannot be the only thing we worry about. We demand a better future for ourselves and our society. "The question for the 21st century, then, is this: what new replacement for the King's Two Bodies will we offer?" (3).  As a comparison to medieval times, they did not have an establishing government. We have to ask ourselves what we want our government to look like in the long haul for future generations. 

Works Cited.

    (1) "The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology". libraryofsocialscience.com https://www.libraryofsocialscience.com/ideologies/resources/kantorowicz-the-kings-two-bodies/ 

    (2) "Edmund Plowden". wikipedia.org https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Plowden 

    (3) "The King's Two Bodies and the Crisis of Liberal Modernity" The Hedgehog Review https://hedgehogreview.com/issues/eating-and-being/articles/the-kings-two-bodies-and-the-crisis-of-liberal-modernity 

    (4) "Review Essay of The King's Two Bodies"  libraryofsocialscience.com https://www.libraryofsocialscience.com/reviews/published/Kantorowicz.html#:~  

Troubadours

Troubadours

A Troubadour is in every sense a composer, a poet of lyrical design and accompaniment. In the Middle Ages, a Troubadour was a composer of old Occitan lyric poetry. A traveling musician much like a bard, with the main difference being that bards would memorize whole narrative tales and songs, and were a respected class amongst their people, whereas Troubadours were the poets and singers attached to a specific Medieval school of literature and music, which started in the region of Provence and spread to most of Western Europe, being heavily respected by lords and kings of the time. Troubadours are directly influential to the entire Western Tradition of what we call poetry today, and surely our whole literary experience would look very, very different today without the Troubadours and their influence. The themes of the songs they would often sing and perform dealt with Chivalry and Courtly Love, romantic ideas that were very popular during the height of the Troubadours and their reach.

Study/History of Troubadours

 The early studies of the troubadours focuses mainly on their origins, or lack thereof. There has never been an academic consensus that scholars could achieve and agree on to this day. There are a couple of theories, but no true definitive answer to their history and true origin. We do know that t archetype of the wild nomadic life of troubadours exists because it was conventional in the Provence to add a short biography of the different poets or Troubadours working on a piece. Them and many others would create"vidas" and "razos" and many of these were made to be entertaining, but the nature of the Troubadour lifestyle and work made it so that you sometimes got several different stories for the life behind the same set of poetry and the poet who made them. Razos were written to explain the set of circumstances behind a poet's composition, hence their barely surviving origins. In one Razo a a misogynist named Marcabrun is cast as the son of a destitute single mother. The other one has him grow up as the adopted child of a noble overlord. Both Razo's are attempting to explain the poetry and the poet and both are entertaining. 

Final Thoughts

Overall the Troubadours proved to be an extremely interesting and important part of our history and culture as writers and scholars. They would entertain and travel for most of their lives and their romantic nature still has not been forgotten to this day. The've influenced poets and writers of the past, and still today their work travels to the ears of others as they did once before.

Works Cited

1. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "troubadour". Encyclopedia Britannica, 12 Jul. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/art/troubadour-lyric-artist. Accessed 12 September 2024.

2. Alchin, Linda. Troubadours, 2018, www.medieval-life-and-times.info/medieval-music/troubadours.htm. 

3. Steel, Matthew . "Troubadours and Trouvères". In obo in Medieval Studies. 12 Sep. 2024. <https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396584/obo-9780195396584-0148.xml>.

4. “Troubadour.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/troubadour. Accessed 12 Sep. 2024.