The Amanuensis

Every body of work that survives today from the Middle Ages was the work of a Medieval scribe who labored over it for countless hours. In the age before the printing press the role of the scribe was incredibly valuable, for each manuscript had to be copied by hand and in painstakingly accurate detail. The amanuensis, "one employed to write from dictation or to copy manuscript," was crucial in the dissemination and preservation of knowledge (1). An amanuensis was responsible for transcribing documents, manuscripts, religious texts, and more by hand. They often worked closely with their employers to record documents as they were dictated, which was especially important for individuals who were illiterate or had limited writing skills. In some cases, amanuenses were more than just scribes; they might also edit or refine the text, correcting errors or suggesting improvements. 

Much of the work was done in monasteries, in a specific room called a scriptorium. These were specialized rooms or areas dedicated to the production and copying of manuscripts. They were designed to be quiet and well-lit in order to best facilitate the work of copying. Natural light was crucial for the work, so scriptoria were usually placed in areas with large windows, often facing east to capture the morning light (2). The scriptorium was a silent and disciplined environment, reflecting the monastic ideals of contemplation and devotion. Scribes would typically work at individual desks or writing tables, which were often slanted for easier writing (2). 

The Making of A Manuscript

According to the Minneapolis Institute of Art, "Manuscripts were written on either vellum (calf skin) or parchment (sheep or goat skin). The skins were cleaned, stretched, scraped, and whitened with chalk to provide bright, strong, and smooth pages for writing" (3). The scribe would then mark out the margins of the page and the lines they were to write on, before finally copying the text with a goose or swan feathered quill pen (3). Scribes were usually equipped with a few lettering styles, which their commissioner could choose from for their manuscript (3). This meant that a commissioners copy could be somewhat unique. After this part of the writing process was done, an illuminator would receive the manuscript to decorate. It was unusual for the scribe to be the one to illuminate the text, or for these things to be done in tandem with one another.

Typically, upon receiving the manuscript, the illuminator would employ several steps to its decoration. First they would glue gold or silver leaves to the pages in a process called gilding (3). Then pictures, border decorations, and ornamental lettering would be added to the manuscript (3). Once the pages were finished with the illumination stage, they would be folded, sewn together, bound between either wood or leather, and typically held shut with metal clasps or leather ties (3). For an in depth look at this entire process, see the video linked below: 

Christina of Markyate (c. 1096 - c. 1155)

One example of the relationship between an amanuensis and employer exists in Christina of Markyate, a 12th-Century Medieval mystic who defied societal expectations by rejecting an arranged marriage to pursue a life of religious devotion and seclusion. The amanuensis responsible for The Life of Christina of Markyate played an essential role in documenting her spiritual experiences, struggles, and achievements. Since Christina lived in a time where few women were literate, the scribe served as the intermediary between her oral recounting and the written word. Without the work of her amanuensis, Christina's life and contributions might have faded into obscurity. The scribe likely took down her words during conversations, ensuring that her story was preserved.

Some scholars comment on the influence that a scribe might have over an oral account such as this one, since any editorial work done would have been under their control. In this case, Ruth Mazo Karras argues that we "see [Christina's life] only through male (and monastic) eyes," while Thomas Head agrees that "the language of The Life of Christina of Markyate [...] tells us little or nothing of Christina's self-understanding" (4). While the work aimed to accurately reflect Christina's spiritual journey, the amanuensis may have shaped the narrative to reflect contemporary ideals of sanctity and the role of women in religious life (4). Medieval hagiographies often followed specific literary conventions meant to highlight the sanctity of their subjects, sometimes at the expense of historical accuracy (5). Since Christina's own voice is mediated through the scribe, her personal agency in the storytelling process is questioned. The narrative's focus on religious virtues and miracles suggests that the scribe may have molded her life story to serve a moral and spiritual purpose, making it less autobiographical and more didactic in nature. 

We do not currently know the identity of the amanuensis who transcribed Christina's experiences. Still, scholars speculate that the amanuensis was likely someone within her religious community, a monk or a cleric perhaps, who would have had the literacy and training necessary to record her experiences (6). This close-working relationship would have allowed the amanuensis to understand and faithfully reproduce Christina's spiritual insights, but we should still take into account what might have been edited or omitted when reading and talking about this work. 

Margery Kempe (c. 1373 - c. 1438)

In contrast to The Life of Christina of Markyate, the work of Margery Kempe presents a more direct and unfiltered account of the life of a Medieval mystic, with Margery dictating her life story in her own voice. A laywoman and mother of fourteen children, Margery experienced intense religious visions after her first pregnancy and thus pursued a life of devotion which included extensive pilgrimages to holy sites across Europe and the Holy Land (7). The Book of Margery Kempe recounts her spiritual experiences, struggles with her faith, and encounters with church authorities and provides unique insight into medieval spirituality for women (7). Scholars now understand that much of what Margery recounts can be tied to postpartum psychosis, particularly in her accounts of uncontrollable weeping, hallucinations, and delusions following her pregnancy (7).  

What makes this work unique is that it is widely understood that Margery herself is responsible for most of the language of the text. Her amanuensis, Richard Salthouse, has been "understood to occupy the role of scribe rather than editor of the Book" (8). Margery's humanity - her flaws, anxieties, and emotional outbursts - are on full display, making her account more complex and less saintly than that of Christina of Markyate's hagiography. Salthouse's limited editorial intervention suggests that The Book of Margery Kempe remains close to an authentic autobiography. Anthony Bale speculates that Salthouse was a monk at Norwich's Benedictine cathedral priory, given "the proficiency and orderliness about [the book] that suggests it was written by a well-trained scribe, probably highly educated and/or in holy orders" (8). 

Understanding the role of the amanuensis in medieval manuscript creation deepens our understanding of how knowledge was preserved back then, and sheds light on the power dynamic between the scribe and their subject. The relationship between amanuensis and author - whether in shaping Christina of Markyate's life to fit hagiographic conventions or in faithfully recording Margery Kempe's authentic voice - illustrates the complex dynamic between authorship, agency, and editorial control in medieval manuscripts. Looking at the manuscripts of women such as Christina and Margery, and the scribes who created those manuscripts, helps us gain valuable insight into how women's spiritual experiences have been documented and transmitted through time. 

Citations

1. "Amanuensis, noun, definition." Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/amanuensis. Accessed 3 September 2024.

2. Cains, Elysia. "An Introduction to the Medieval Scriptorium." Glastonbury Abbey, 26 July 2022, https://www.glastonburyabbey.com/blogs/the-glastonbury-bible-project/an-introduction-to-the-medieval-scriptorium.php. Accessed 3 September 2024. 

3. "Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts." Minneapolis Institute of Art, https://new.artsmia.org/programs/teachers-and-students/teaching-the-arts/five-ideas/medieval-illuminated-manuscripts. Accessed 5 September 2024.

4. Passmore, S. Elizabeth. "Painting Lions, Drawing Lines, Writing Lives: Male Authorship in the Lives of Christina of Markyate, Margery Kempe, and Margaret Paston." Medieval Feminist Forum: A Journal of Gender and Sexuality, vol. 36, 2003, pp. 36-40, https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1206&context=mff. Accessed 10 September 2024. 

5. "Hagiography." OrthodoxWiki, https://orthodoxwiki.org/Hagiography. Accessed 11 September 2024.

6. The Life of Christina of Markyate: A Twelfth Century Recluse, edited and translated by C.H. Talbot. University of Toronto Press, 1998.

7. Johnston, Lucy. "The Mysticism and Madness of Margery Kempe." HistoricUK, https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/Mysticism-And-Madness-Of-Margery-Kempe/. Accessed September 10 2024. 

8. Bale, Anthony. "Richard Salthouse of Norwich and the Scribe of The Book of Margery Kempe." The Chaucer Review, vol. 52, no. 2, 2017, pp. 173-87. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.5325/chaucerrev.52.2.0173. Accessed 11 September 2024.

9. "Middle Ages, the Dark Ages?" Cultural Heritage Sardegna, Virtual Archeology, https://virtualarchaeology.sardegnacultura.it/index.php/en/archaeological-sites/eta-medievale/monreale/detailed-sheets/759-medioevo-secoli-bui. Accessed 11 September 2024.

10. Kwakkel, Eric. "Where Are the Scriptoria?" MedievalBooks, 5 November 2013, https://medievalbooks.nl/2013/11/05/where-are-the-scriptoria/. Accessed 11 September 2024.

11. Paterson, Emma. "Making a Medieval Manuscript." YouTube, uploaded by Emma Paterson, 3 March 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TPA7o_B8O6U. Accessed 11 September 2024.

12. Horn, Matthew. "To Take Care of the Monks, Take Care of Christina: Christina of Markyate and the Spiritual/Material Market." Medievalists, https://www.medievalists.net/2013/07/to-take-care-of-the-monks-take-care-of-christina-christina-of-markyate-and-the-medieval-spiritualmaterial-market/. Accessed 11 September 2024.

13. Odessa, Rebecca. "The Magic of Margery Kempe." The Wisdom Daily, 16 February 2016, https://thewisdomdaily.com/magic-of-margery-kempe/. Accessed 11 September 2024.